Class 12

Biotechnology is defined as “the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services.” It is defined as “the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services.” The term “biotechnology” was coined by Károly […]

Ester is a type of organic compound that reacts with water to form alcohols and organic or inorganic acids. The most prevalent esters are those generated from carboxylic acids. Leopold Gmelin, a German chemist, coined the word ester in the first part of the 19th century. Carboxylic acid esters, formula RCOOR′ (R and R′ are

Plants that have been genetically modified to produce the same toxin as the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis in the plant cell are known as Bt Crops. These crops are resistant to pest attack because of the toxin they produce. The bacterium secretes particular proteins known as “cry proteins,” which are harmful to insects and are produced

Introduction Enzymes are proteins that operate as biological catalysts. Catalysts help to increase the speed of chemical reactions. Anselme Payen, a French chemist, first discovered an enzyme in 1833. Enzymes work with molecules called substrates and convert them into different molecules called products. All biological processes in life forms are chemical changes, and enzymes regulate

The process of DNA replication is heavily reliant on enzymes. Many enzymes are involved in DNA replication, including DNA-dependent DNA polymerase, helicase, ligase, and others.  A sophisticated enzyme called DNA polymerase works along the DNA molecule during replication, matching nucleotides on each template strand with complementary nucleotides that are free. Because DNA strands are antiparallel,

Enzymes are proteins made up of hundreds of thousands of amino acids that help to speed up any biological reaction. Enzymes are catalysts in a variety of biological activities, including digestion and cell energy production. Enzymes are used to speed up numerous chemical reactions in a variety of industrial operations, including pharmaceutical institutes, the food

Enzymes are biological catalysts that are found in cells. They speed up the body’s biological responses. They are not used up in the process, thus they can be reused. The body’s ability to break down huge, complicated compounds into smaller ones is due to enzymes. Substrates, which are molecules that bind to a segment of

Bacteriophages are all made up of a nucleic acid molecule encased in a protein framework. A bacteriophage infects the host cell by attaching itself to a susceptible bacterium. Following infection, the bacteriophage hijacks the bacterial cell’s biological machinery, forcing the cell to create viral components instead of bacterial components. In a process known as lysis,

Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA molecules capable of autonomous replication and often contain genes that can be used to alter the characteristics of a cell or an entire organism. Plasmids can be found in a wide range of organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals, and they are often inherited as part of a cell’s genetic material.

In microbiology, an endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by certain bacteria of the Firmicute phylum that is not capable of reproducing. Lack of nutrients is usually the catalyst for endospore formation, which occurs most frequently in Gram-positive bacteria. The bacterium divides within its own cell wall during the process of endospore