Thermodynamics

The Helmholtz free energy (or Helmholtz energy) is a thermodynamic potential in thermodynamics that estimates the useful work produced by a closed thermodynamic system at a fixed temperature (isothermal). The maximum work a system can perform in thermodynamics with constant temp. is equivalent to the change in Helmholtz energy during such a process.  The Gibbs’ […]

A heat engine is a device used to convert thermal energy to mechanical energy. The pressure-volume (PV) diagram describes the process occurring in heat engines at the constant mass of gas. A PV diagram is represented as a closed loop. The closed loop is the amount of work done during a cycle. Structure and terms

A heat engine does work by using energy provided in the form of heat and then exhausting the heat that cannot be used for work. The study of the interactions between heat and work is known as thermodynamics. The operation of a heat engine is constrained by the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The

The American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs invented Gibbs’s free energy equation in the 1870s. He said energy is an “available energy” in a system. The benefits of thermodynamics laws and Gibb’s free energy equation are that they reduce experimental cost and time.  Gibbs free energy is based on thermodynamic second law, Which means “In an

Introduction The mechanism through which nuclear reactions between light elements produce heavier atoms is known as nuclear fusion (up to iron). Significant amounts of energy are generated when the interacting nuclei are from elements with low atomic numbers (for example, hydrogen [atomic number 1] and its isotopes deuterium and tritium). The tremendous energy potential of

Hess’s law of heat summation, or simply Hess’s law, is named after a Russian physician and chemist Germain Hess who published the law in 1840.  Hess’s law is based on the first law of thermodynamics which says that the enthalpy of chemical processes is not dependent on the steps, processes, or ways used in the

In 1848, a German chemist Hermann Fehling developed a method to differentiate between reducing and non – reducing sugars, this method is known as Fehling’s Test. Initially, the Fehling Test was used to detect the presence of sugar content in the blood of diabetic patients. Fehling’s test is an indicating reaction for reducing groups like

Logic gates are simple digital circuits that can perform some basic mathematical logical operations. There are primarily seven basic gates in digital electronics. Those are NOT gate OR gate AND gate NOR gate NAND gate Ex-OR gate  Ex-NOR gate Generally, these gates have multiple inputs and a single output. We can build a digital electronic

Entropy Change During Reversible Adiabatic Expansion Entropy is the measure of the randomness or disorderliness of a system. It is a state quantity, which is a physical quantity that defines the state of a system. The system is a part of the universe that is under observation. Systems can be of three types: open, closed,

In the United Kingdom and Australia, a petrol engine (also known as a gasoline engine in the United States) is an internal combustion engine with spark ignition that is designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and other volatile fuels, such as jet fuel. Before compression is used in most petrol engines, the fuel and air